REPORT 

UPON 

THE  SANITARY  QUALITY 

OF  THE 

OWENS   RIVER 
WATER  SUPPLY 

BY 

CHARLES  OILMAN  HYDE 

Sanitary  and  Hydraulic  Engineer 

' 


Reprinted  from  the  Fourteenth  Annual   Report  of  the  Board  of 

Public  Service  Commissioners  of  the  City  of 

Los  Angeles,  California 


HEAD  OF  COTTONWOOD  CREEK.  JUNE  7.   1915 
(DRAINAGE  is  TRIBUTARY  TO  THE  LOS  ANGELES  AQUEDUCT) 


REPORT 


UPON 


The  Sanitary  Quality  of  the  Owens  River 

Water  Supply  Delivered  to  Consumers 

in  Los  Angeles  Through  the  Los 

Angeles  Aqueduct  System 


BY 


CHARLES  OILMAN  HYDE 

Sanitary  and  Hydraulic  Engineer 


LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA 
1915 


Reprinted  from  the  Fourteenth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Board  of  Public  Service 
Commissioners  of  the  City  of  Los  An- 
geles, Cal. 


L7// 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


LEGAL  FEATURES  OF  CASES:  Pages 

Antagonisms  to  Aqueduct  Project 33 

Motions  for  Injunction  Against  Use  of  Owens  River  Water 33 

Affidavit  of  Dr.  Ethel  Leonard 34 

Complaint  of  E.  M.  Frost 35 

Hearing  before  Judge  Works . ., 36 

BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM: 

Sources   of   Supply. .: 37 

Elements  of  System  of  Works 37 

THE  SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY  FROM  A  SANITARY  STANDPOINT: 

General  Considerations   40 

Area  and  Extent  of  Watershed : 41 

Resident  Population  and  its  Disposition  in  the  Drainage  Basin 41 

Nature  and  Extent  of  Pollution 41 

THE  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM  FROM  A  SANITARY  STANDPOINT: 

Longevity  of  Pathogenic  Bacteria 42 

Agencies  of  Self -Purification 43 

Reservoirs  as  Sanitary  Safeguards  and  Purifying  Agencies 44 

Nature  and  Capacities  of  Reservoirs  in  Aqueduct  System 45 

Yield  of  Source  as  Related  to  Time  Factor 46 

QUALITY  OF  WATER  FROM  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM: 

Chemical  Composition  of  Water 47 

Bacteriological  Composition  of  Water 49 

Possibility  of  Disinfection  of  Entire  Water  Supply 50 

The  Aqueduct  Supply  as  Fulfilling  Rigorous  Quality  Requirements ...  50 

CONCLUSION: 

Text  of  Judge  Works '  Decision 53 


UBKABY 


BOARD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  33 

A  REVIEW  OF 
THE  CASES  OF  HART  AND  FEOST  vs.  THE  CITY  OF  LOS  ANGELES 

BEING  A  CONSIDERATION  OF 
THE  SANITARY  QUALITY  OF  THE  OWENS  RIVER  WATER  SUPPLY 

DELIVERED  TO  CONSUMERS  IN  LOS  ANGELES 
THROUGH  THE  LOS  ANGELES  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM 

by 

CHARLES  GILMAN  HYDE, 

Sanitary  and  Hydraulic  Engineer. 

July  1,  1915. 

LEGAL  FEATURES  OF  CASES. 

ANTAGONISM  TO  AQUEDUCT  PROJECT. 

The  conception  of  a  great  system  of  water  supply  from  Owens  River 
for  the  people  of  Los  Angeles  was  nothing  less  than  an  inspiration.  Its 
construction  has  required  faith,  loyalty,  brains  and  engineering  ability  of 
the  highest  order.  Its  consummation  spells  for  the  citizens  of  Los  Angeles 
a  degree  of  success  and  a  brilliancy  of  future  which  could  in  no  other  way 
have  been  so  perfectly  vouchsafed. 

Yet  from  the  beginning  all  sorts  of  selfish  interests  have  antagonized 
the  development  of  this  magnificent  project.  These  interests  have  for  the 
most  part  waged  a  battle  from  the  ambush.  They  have  used  the  knife  in 
the  dark.  They  have  not  permitted  their  identity  to  be  disclosed.  Mere 
dummies  posing  as  citizens  jealous  of  the  welfare  of  the  people  or  as  public- 
spirited  engineers  have  served  as  screens  for  the  "malefactors  of  great 
wealth"  who  would  have  been  able  to  profit  if  this  scheme  of  water  supply 
could  have  been  throttled  or  if  spurious  claims  to  water  in  the  Owens  River 
drainage  basin  could  have  been  foisted  upon  the  city  at  great  cost.  Fortu- 
nately, the  construction  of  the  works  was  not  thereby  halted.  The  en- 
gineers and  attorneys  for  the  city  and  the  real  citizenship  which  had  the 
best  interests  of  the  city  at  heart  did  not  falter.  They  carried  the  enter- 
prise through  according  to  the  original  program  of  capital  outlay,  capacity 
of  works  and  time  schedule. 

It  remained  for  one  final,  but  again  futile,  effort  to  be  made  to  destroy 
the  project  at  or  about  the  time  when,  the  aqueduct  and  reservoirs  having 
been  sufficiently  completed,  the  water  was  finally  brought  to  the  threshold 
of  the  City  and  turned  into  the  distribution  system.  This  attempt  to  under- 
mine or  destroy  the  efficacy  of  the  Aqueduct  system  took  the  form  of  injunc- 
tion proceedings  to  restrain  the  further  use  of  water  from  Owens  River. 

MOTIONS  FOR  INJUNCTION  AGAINST 
USE  OF  OWENS  RIVER  WATER. 

The  first  suit,  including  a  motion  for  a  preliminary  injunction,  was 
filed  in  the  Superior  Court  of  Los  Angeles  County  on  or  about  August  15, 
1914,  by  Henry  A.  Hart.  Mr.  Hart  was  the  leader  of  the  mal-odorous 
majority  of  the  Peoples  Aqueduct  Investigation  Board,  so-called,  whose 
work  and  report  are  too  well  remembered  to  require  extended  mention  here. 
It  is  sufficient  to  state  that,  after  having  been  in  existence  for  six  months 
and  having  spent  $16,535.48  in  "investigating,"  they  were  unable  to  find 


M182278 


34  FOUETEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

any  evidence  of  graft  or  incompetence  in  the  prosecution  of  the  aqueduct 
project.  They  were  willing  to  go  on  record,  however,  as  being  certain,  on 
the  basis  of  their  intimate  knowledge  of  human  nature,  that  were  they  to 
be  continued  in  office  for  a  sufficiently  longer  period  with  sufficiently 
larger  sums  to  expend,  tangible  evidences  of  graft  and  incompetence  would 
be  forthcoming. 

It  was  shortly  discovered  that  no  sufficient  cause  of  action  existed  in 
Hart's  case  because  he  was  not  a  resident  within  the  territory  supplied 
with  aqueduct  water,  which  was  a  principal  ground  of  complaint.  A  second 
suit  was  therefore  filed  in  behalf  of  Edgar  M.  Frost,  who  seemed  to  be 
willing  to  serve  as  a  dummy  plaintiff  and  who  conveniently  lived  in  the  dis- 
trict which  was  being  supplied  with  water  from  Owens  Eiver.  Further- 
more, among  other  activities,  Frost  was  employed  as  a  detective  in  the  office 
of  attorney  for  plaintiff  during  the  period  covered  by  the  suit. 

The  suits  were  brought  by  Mr.  Ingle  Carpenter,  as  attorney.  The 
names  of  the  clients  in  whose  interests  he  served  Mr.  Carpenter  has  not 
yet  seen  fit  to  divulge,  nor  did  they  appear  during  the  hearing  of  the  case. 

As  a  self-styled  servant  of  the  people  Mr.  Carpenter  made  a  trip  into 
the  Owens  Valley  region  in  June,  1914.  In  July  he  employed  Dr.  Ethel 
Leonard  as  a  sanitary  expert  and  accompanied  her  on  a  six  days'  inspection 
trip  over  the  watershed.  A  few  samples  for  bacteriological  and  chemical 
examination,  and  a  few  photographs,  were  taken  at  this  time.  Upon  her 
return  to  Los  Angeles,  Dr.  Leonard  prepared  a  report  of  her  sanitary  invest- 
igations. This  was  shortly  printed  and,  consistently  enough,  was  clothed 
in  yellow  covers.  It  was  spread  broadcast  throughout  the  city  and  country 
'•wherever  it  could  do  the  most  harm." 

The  original  motion  for  a  preliminary  injunction  was  supported  by 
seven  affidavits  filed  by  H.  A.  Hart  as  plaintiff,  Ingle  Carpenter  as  attorney, 
Dr.  Ethel  Leonard  as  sanitary  expert,  Ealph  Leonard  as  assistant,  Dr.  A. 
F.  Wagner  as  chemist,  H.  E.  Fosbinder  as  veterinarian,  and  G.  L.  Hazlett 
as  searcher  of  records.  These  affidavits  were  variously  dated  between 
August  7th  and  13th.  The  order  to  show  cause  why  the  injunction  should 
not  be  granted  was  signed  by  Judge  Lewis  E.  Works  as  Presiding  Judge  of 
the  Superior  Court,  under  date  of  August  15th,  and  required  the  defendants 
in  the  action,  the  City  of  Los  Angeles  and  the  individual  members  of  the 
Board  of  Public  Service  Commissioners,  to  appear  in  Court  on  August 
26th.  The  representatives  of  the  parties  appeared  but  the  hearing  on  the 
motion  for  a  preliminary  injunction  was  postponed  on  account  of  the  ab- 
sence of  Dr.  Ethel  Leonard,  who  departed  for  Chicago  immediately  after 
making  her  report,  above  noted.  Judge  Works  then  decided  that  no  pre- 
liminary injunction  should  be  issued  and  that  the  case  should  be  set  down 
for  an  early  trial. 

A  second  suit  was  filed  on  behalf  of  Edgar  M.  Frost  on  October  5, 
1914.  The  summons  was  dated  October  5th  and  required  that  the  defen- 
dants appear  and  answer  within  ten  days  thereafter. 

AFFIDAVIT  OF  DE.  ETHEL  LEONAED. 

The  principal  affidavit  in  support  of  the  motion  of  H.  A.  Hart  looking 
to  a  preliminary  injunction,  restraining  the  further  use  of  Owens  Eiver 
water  through  the  Aqueduct  system,  was  that  of  Dr.  Leonard.  This  paper 


BOAED  OF  PUBLIC  8EEVICE  COMMISSIONERS  35 

was  almost  identical  with  the  printed  report  above  mentioned.  Something 
of  the  profound  technical  ability  of  this  expert  for  the  plaintiff,  and  some- 
thing of  the  animus  actuating  her  work,  may  be  inferred  from  the  follow- 
ing statements  in  the  affidavit  in  question: 

"Although  cultures'7 — of  Horton's  creek  water — "made  by  the 
State  Hygienic  laboratory  showed  the  presence  of  typhoid  bacilli,  the 
source  of  infection  and  virulence  of  the  organisms  could  not  be 
accounted  for."  No  samples  from  this  source  were  ever  examined 
.  by  the  State  Hygienic  Laboratory.  Moreover,  neither  this  laboratory 
nor  any  other  reputable  laboratory  attempts  to  differentiate  B.  typhosus 
in  routine  work  and  but  few  authentic  isolations  of  this  germ  have 
ever  been  made  from  potable  waters. 

' '  Physical  conditions ' ' — at  the  north  end  of  Haiwee  Reservoir — 
"demonstrate  beyond  question  that  even  bacteria  cannot  develop  in 
such  polluted  water." 

' '  The  course  of  these  creeks ' ' — mountain  streams  emptying  into 
Long  Valley — "lies  through  the  marshes  of  Long  Valley  which  con- 
tain enumerable" — (innumerable) — "dead  cattle."  The  testimony  in 
the  case  showed  that  only  two  or  three  carcasses  of  varying  ages  were 
discovered  in  an  area  fully  20  square  miles  in  extent. 

' '  Owing  to  the  large  number  of  germs  and  contamination  by  organic 
matter  found  in  practically  all  of  the  samples,  it  was  deemed  inad- 
visable and  impractical  to  attempt  to  segregate  the  specific  pathogenic 
bacteria."  The  real  reason  should  lie  in  the  limitations  of  bacteriolog- 
ical procedure,  not  in  the  causes  named. 

"The  inoculation  of  the  Owens  River  water  from  its  source  to 
the  intake  with  pathogenic  and  saprophytic  bacteria  must  so  alter  its 
chemical  condition  that  the  continued  use  by  the  residents  of  Los  An- 
geles for  human  consumption  and  domestic  use,  even  with  boiling  pre- 
cautions, must  necessarily  result  in  severe  gastro-intestinal  diseases. 
Other  diseases  resulting  from  disturbed  metabolism  will  undoubtedly 
attack  anyone  who  continuously  drinks  this  water. ' ' 

"My  investigation  shows  that  any  use  of  Owens  Eiver  water  is 
absolutely  impossible  from  a  sanitary  standpoint." 

"Plate  cultures  all  developed  72  hours  before  colonies  were 
counted."  "Cultures  were  kept  as  near  as  possible  at  a  uniform  tem- 
perature, 37°C."  The  period  of  incubation  employed  by  Dr.  Leonard 
was  three  times  as  great  as  American  standard  methods  dictate. 

COMPLAINT  OF  EDGAR  M.  FROST. 

The  complaint  of   Edgar  M.  Frost,  upon  which  the  second  suit  was 
based,  made  the  following  principal  allegations: 

(1)  that  the  City  of  Los  Angeles,  a  municipal  corporation,  through  the 
Board  of  Public  Service  Commissioners,  who  have  immediate  charge 
of  the  water  works  system,  furnishes  as  a  portion  of  its  supply, 
the  water  from  Owens  River  through  the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct. 

(2)  that  the  plaintiff  is  furnished  with  water  from  this  source  which 
is  alleged  to  be   polluted  in  various  designated  ways  above  the 
point  of  intake  and  is  therefore  unhealthful  to  consumers  in  the 
City  of  Los  Angeles. 

(3)  that  certain  streams  such  as  Cottonwood  Creek  are  unpolluted  and 
sufficient  for  present  purposes  and  that  the  supply  can  be  extended 
by  the  use  of  other  protected  creeks. 

(4)  that  no  permit  had  been  obtained  from  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

(5)  that  the  supply  derived  from  Los  Angeles  River  has  hitherto  been 
unpolluted  and  healthful,  but  now  has  become  polluted  by  the  turn- 
ing of  Owens  River  water  into  the  distribution  system. 

(6)  that  various  chemical  and  bacteriological  analyses  made  in  behalf 
of  the  plaintiff  on  samples  collected  from  the  system  as  far  dowp 


36  FOUETEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

as  San  Fernando  Valley  show  the  water  to  be  polluted  and  there- 
fore dangerous  and  unhealthful  to  consumers  in  the  City  of  Los 
Angeles  and  to  the  plaintiff. 

During  the  trial,  the  falsity  of  every  statement  named  above,  except 
(1),  (4),  and  the  first  part  of  (5),  was  demonstrated  beyond  peradventure. 
With  respect  to  item  (4)  Judge  Works  declared  that  the  statute  which 
appears  to  require  that  a  permit  to  operate  the  works  must  be  secured  from 
the  State  Board  of  Health  is  either  unconstitutional  or  else  was  covered 
by  charter  provisions  since  the  Los  Angeles  City  charter  confers  on  the 
City  the  right  and  power  both  to  acquire  and  to  operate  and  control  a 
water  works  system. 

HEARING  BEFORE  JUDGE  WORKS. 

The  Hart  and  Frost  cases  were  assigned  by  Judge  Works  to  himself. 
After  several  postponements,  all  at  the  instance  of  Ingle  Carpenter,  attor- 
ney for  the  plaintiffs,  the  trial  of  both  cases  was  begun  on  January  5th,  it 
being  agreed  that  the  cases  be  tried  together.  The  trial  continued  with 
few  interruptions  until  the  decision  was  rendered  on  March  19th.  The 
hearing  consumed  40  court  days.  The  transcript  embraced  some  6,312  pages 
and  possibly  1,250,000  words. 

In  its  relation  to  the  best  interests  and  the  general  welfare  of  the 
people,  the  capital  outlay  involved  and  the  number  of  trained  experts  em- 
ployed, this  litigation  represents  one  of  the  most  important  cases  yet  heard 
in  the  United  States  dealing  wholly  with  a  water  supply  problem.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  significance  and  complexity  of  the  sanitary  principles  in- 
volved, as  well  as  from  the  standpoint  of  its  general  importance,  this  litiga- 
tion is  outranked  by  the  famous  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  Case  (State 
of  Missouri  vs.  the  State  of  Illinois  and  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago, 
1900-1906)  which  comprehended  problems  of  sewage  disposal  as  well  as  of 
water  supply.  In  volume  of  testimony  and  the  number  of  trained  experts 
employed  this  litigation  is  to  be  compared  with  the  Jersey  City  Water 
Supply  Case  (City  of  Jersey  City  vs.  Jersey  City  Water  Supply  Company, 
1904-1908). 

Throughout  the  trial  Judge  Works  proved  himself  to  be  most  fair.  He 
was  extremely  generous  in  the  admission  of  testimony  from  both  sides.  He 
was  tireless  in  his  attention  to  every  detail  and  angle  of  the  case.  Because 
of  his  extremely  judicial  temperament  and  his  clear  grasp  of  the  problems 
as  presented  to  him,  his  decision  must  be  considered  to  be  practically  fault- 
less and  impregnable. 

The  case  was  most  ably  conducted  for  the  city  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Mathews, 
Special  Counsel  to  the  Board  of  Public  Service  Commissioners,  assisted  by 
Mr.  Wm.  B.  Himrod,  Deputy  City  Attorney.  The  experts  testifying  in 
behalf  of  the  City  were  Wm.  Mulholland,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Board  of 
Public  Service  Commissioners,  and  Dr.  Stanley  Black,  Dr.  Walter  V.  Brem, 
Charles  Oilman  Hyde,  Dr.  Edwin  O.  Jordan,  Charles  H.  Lee,  E.  O.  Slater, 
and  Carl  Wilson.  Testimony  on  certain  engineering  and  operative  features 
of  the  Aqueduct  system  was  given  by  Messrs.  Van  Norman,  Shuey  and  Jones 
of  the  Aqueduct  staff. 

The  case  for  the  plaintiffs  was  conducted  by  Mr.  Ingle  Carpenter,  attor- 
ney. The  experts  testifying  in  behalf  of  the  plaintiffs  were  Dr.  Ethel 


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BOABD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  37 

Leonard  and  Dr.  Ernst  A.  Victors.  The  testimony  on  behalf  of  plaintiffs 
on  certain  engineering  features  of  the  case  was  given  by  Messrs.  B.  E.  Child, 
H.  E.  Linden,  and  Cyril  Williams. 

BEIEF  DESCBIPTION  OF  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM. 
SOUECES  OF  SUPPLY. 

The  principal  sources  of  supply  of  water  to  the  aqueduct  system  are, 
or  will  be: — (1)  Owens  Eiver,  taken  about  half-way  between  the  villages  of 
Big  Pine  and  Independence,  and  about  257  miles  via  the  aqueduct  works 
from  Los  Angeles;  (2)  Black  Eock  Springs,  tributary  to  the  line  of  open 
aqueduct  above  Haiwee  Eeservoir  about  three  miles  below  the  intake 
on  Owens  Eiver;  (3)  Cottonwood  Creek  and  some  thirteen  other  smaller 
creeks  tributary  to  the  line  of  open  aqueduct;  (4)  A  large  volume  of  artesian 
water  to  be  taken  in  the  future,  when  necessary,  from  wells  sunk  along  the 
west  side  of  the  open  aqueduct  in  the  Independence  region. 

It  is  considered  to  be  unnecessary  to  discuss  herein  the  yield  of  these 
various  sources  of  supply.  It  may  be  stated  that  the  works  have  been 
so  designed  that  any  or  all  of  these  sources  may  be  drawn  upon  at  will. 
Only  a  few  wells  have  asj  yet  been  developed.  The  flow  from  these  is  regu- 
larly taken  into  the  aqueduct.  The  line  of  open  aqueduct  north  of  Haiwee 
Eeservoir  is  completely  controllable  by  gates  so  that  as  much  or  as  little 
water  may  be  diverted  from  Owens  Eiver  and  the  tributary  creeks  as  may 
be  desired,  limited,  of  course,  to  their  respective  yields. 

ELEMENTS  OF  SYSTEM  OF  WOEKS. 

In  order  that  the  contentions  of  the  City  and  the  findings  of  the  Court 
as  respects  the  quality  of  water  finally  delivered  to  consumers  in  Los  An- 
geles may  be  understood,  it  is  necessary  that  a  fairly  comprehensive  idea 
be  had  concerning  the  system  of  works  comprised  in  the  aqueduct  project, 
especially  with  reference  to  their  capacity  and  dimensions.  The  system 
may  be  roughly  outlined  as  follows: — 

(1)  An  intake  on  Owens  Eiver  about  15  miles  north  of  Independence, 
the   county  seat   of  Inyo   County.     The  drainage  area  tributary 
to  this  point  is  estimated  to  be  about  2740  square  miles.     The 
elevation  is  3814.8  feet.     The  intake  is  so  designed  that  as  much 
or  as  little  water  as  is  desired  may  be  diverted  from  the  Eiver. 

(2)  A  line  of  open  aqueduct  60.8  miles  in  length  from  the  intake  on 
Owens  Eiver  to  the  north  end  of  Haiwee  Eeservoir.     The  upper 
or   northerly  portion   of   this  aqueduct,    comprising    about    23.72 
miles,  is  an  unlined  ditch;  the  remainder  or  southerly  portion  is 
lined   with   concrete.     Throughout  its  entire   length,  this   stretch 
of  open  aqueduct  is  protected  by  a  substantial  barbed  wire  fence. 
All  bridge  crossings  are  properly  enclosed.    The  carrying  capacity 
of  this   section   of  the  aqueduct  is  580  million  gallons  per   day. 
The  rate  of  flow  is  estimated  to  vary  from  an  average  of  about 
1.1  feet  per  second,  with  a  draft  of  26  million  gallons  per  day, 
to  2.8  feet  per  second  when  the  draft  reaches  272  million  gallons. 
This  section  of  the  aqueduct  is  provided  with  various  diversion 
and  regulating  gates  whereby  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
water  entering  it  or  flowing  therein  may  be  controlled. 

(3)  Haiwee  Eeservoir  with  high  water  elevation  of  3760  feet.     This 
reservoir  consists  virtually  of  three  great  elongated  basins  con- 
nected by  narrow  straits.     Taken  as  a  whole  it  is  sinuous.     The 


38  FOUETEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

banks  are  bold,  steep,  and  deeply  incised  by  ancient  erosion.  The 
immediate  watershed  is  small,  uninhabited,  practically  rainless,  a 
desert  and  almost  without  run-off.  The  only  waters  reaching  this 
reservoir  in  significant  amount  must  arrive  through  the  open  aque- 
duct discharging  into  the  north  end.  The  intake  by  which  the 
water  must  leave  the  reservoir  is  located  at  the  extreme  south- 
erly end.  Practically  all  water  entering  the  reservoir  must  trav- 
erse its  entire  length  of  7.25  miles  before  it  can  escape  through 
the  intake  into  the  line  of  aqueduct  below.  The  reservoir  has  an 
average  width  of  about  2400  feet  and  an  average  depth  of  30 
feet.  The  area  of  water  surface  at  the  high  water  line  is  2100 
acres  or  nearly  3.3  square  miles.  It  has  been  created  by  two 
hydraulic-fill  dams,  one  at  either  end.  The  maximum  depth  of 
water  at  the  north  dam  or  inlet  end  is  28  feet;  that  at  the  south 
dam  or  intake  end  is  64  feet.  The  capacity  of  this  great  reser- 
voir, when  filled  to  the  high  water  line,  is  20,800  million  gallons. 

This  reservoir  is  indeed  unique  among  the  storage  reservoirs 
of  the  world.  There  is  believed  to  be  no  other  reservoir  in  ex- 
istance  on  a  similar  or  anything  like  a  similar  scale  of  magnitude 
where  the  inflow  is  absolutely  controllable  because  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  not  filled  from  its  own  watershed.  The  danger  of  short- 
circuiting  when  maintained  with  a  reasonable  depth  of  water  is 
therefore  absolutely  eliminated. 

(4)  About   135.5   miles  of  aqueduct  from  the  south   end   of  Haiwee 
Eeservoir  to  Fairmont  Reservoir.    For  about  2  miles  immediately 
below  Haiwee  Eeservoir  the  aqueduct  consists  of  an  open  concrete- 
lined  ditch.     The  remainder  of  the  distance  is  comprised  of  con- 
crete-lined covered  aqueduct,  concrete-lined   tunnels  and  riveted 
steel  inverted  siphons.     The  carrying  capacity  of  this  section  is 
272  million  gallons  per  24  hours,  and  the  velocity  of  flow  varies 
from  an  average  of  about  2.7  feet  per  second,  with  a  draft  of 
26  million  gallons  per  day,  to  about  5.3  feet  per  second  when  the 
draft  becomes  272  million  gallons  daily. 

(5)  Fairmont  Reservoir,  with  a  proposed  high  water  elevation,  when 
completed,  of  3025  feet.     This  reservoir  is  being  created  by  an 
hydraulic-fill  dam  which  has  not  yet  been  raised  to  the  ultimate 
height  proposed.     The  present  storage  capacity  is  about  277  mil- 
lion gallons.     The  distance  from  inlet  to  outlet  is  about  0.4  mile. 
When  completed  the  reservoir  capacity  will  be  1940  million  gal- 
lons.    This  basin  will  serve  as  a  huge  forebay  for  the  San  Fran- 
cisquito  power  plant. 

(6)  About  17.6  miles  of  concrete-lined  and  covered  aqueduct,  concrete- 
lined  tunnels  and  riveted  steel  pipe  lines  from  Fairmont  Eeser- 
voir to  Dry  Canyon  Eeservoir.    At  the  present  time  a  portion  of 
these  works  are  under  construction,  and  ever  since  the  plant  has 
been  in  service  the  water  has  been  allowed  to  flow  for  a  distance 
of  about  9  miles  through  the  San  Francisquito  Canyon  to  the  loca- 
tion of  the  tunnel  below  the  power  house.     (Since  the  above  was 
written,  the  tunnels  in  San  Francisquito  Canyon  have  been  com- 
pleted and  the  natural  stream  bed  of  the  canyon  is  only  used  for 
a   distance   of  about   one  and   one-half  miles  in   an  inaccessible 
gorge  in  hard  granite  rock,  which  imparts  no  objectionable  char- 
acter to  the  water.)     The  capacity  of  the  conduits  in  this  section 
is  about  650  million  gallons  per  24  hours.     The  rate  of  flow  is 
estimated  to  vary  from  a  general  average  of  2.4  feet  per  second, 
with  a  daily  draft  of  26  million  gallons,  to  4.8  feet  per  second 
when  the  average  draft  becomes  272  million  gallons  per  day. 

(7)  Dry   Canyon  Eeservoir   with   high  water   elevation   of   1505   feet. 
This  reservoir  has  been  created  by  an  hydraulic-fill  dam.     The 
storage  capacity  is  430  million  gallons.    The  distance  from  inlet  to 
outlet  is  about  0.7  mile.     This  basin  will  serve  as  an  equalizing 


BOAED  OF  PUBLIC  SEEVICE  COMMISSIONEES  39 

reservoir  to  compensate  for  variations  in  draft  on  the  part  of  the 
power  plant  in  San  Francisquito  Canyon  and  on  the  part  of  the 
City. 

(8)  About  11.5  miles  of  covered  aqueduct,  lined  tunnels  and  riveted 
steel  pipe  lines  from  Dry  Canyon  Eeservoir  to  the  Cascades,  thence 
about  1.6  miles  of  open  lined  ditch  to  the  inlets  of  the  San  Fer- 
nando Eeservoirs.     The  capacity  of  the  conduits  in  this  section 
is  272  million  gallons  per  24  hours.    The  rate  of  flow  is  estimated 
to  vary  from  an  average  of  about  2.7  feet  per  second,  with  a  daily 
draft  of  26  million  gallons,  to  about  5.4  feet  per  second  when  the 
aqueduct  is  delivering  at  its  full  rated  capacity. 

(9)  San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  1  with  a  proposed  high  water  eleva- 
tion of  1265  feet,  a  length  between  inlet  and  intake  of  0.7  mile, 
and  a  capacity  of  4,900  million  gallons.     This  reservoir  has  not 
yet  been  constructed. 

(10)  San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  2  with  a  proposed  high  water  eleva- 
tion of  1135  feet,  a  length  between  inlet  and  intake  of  1.4  miles, 
and  a  capacity  of  7,500  million  gallons.     This  reservoir  is  being 
created  by  the  erection  of  a  high  hydraulic-fill  dam.     This  reser- 
voir will  be  by-passed  and  will  not  form  a  component  part  of  the 
works,  as  now  proposed,  delivering  water  into  the  present  distri- 
bution system  in  Los  Angeles. 

(11)  About  12.8  miles  of  concrete-lined  tunnel  and  riveted  steel  pipe 
line  from   San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  1   to  the  inlet  of  Upper 
Franklin  Eeservoir.     The  capacity  of  this  conduit  is  97  million 
gallons  daily.     The  rate  of  flow  therein  is  estimated  to  vary  from 
about  1.0  foot  per  second,  with  a  draft  of  26  million  gallons  per 
day,  to  about  7.4  feet  per  second  with  a  daily  draft  equal  to  the 
capacity  of  the  conduit. 

(12)  Upper  Franklin  Eeservoir  with  high  water  elevation  of  850  feet, 
a  length  between  inlet  and  intake  of  0.25  mile  and  a  capacity  of 
42  million  gallons.     This  frasin  has  been  created  by  an  hydraulic- 
fill  dam  to  serve  as  a  distributing  reservoir  for  the  City. 

(13)  About  1.1  miles  of  riveted  steel  conduit  from  the  intake  of  Upper 
Franklin  Reservoir  to  the  inlet  of  Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir.   This 
pipe  line  has  a  carrying  capacity  of  39  million  gallons  per  24 
hours.     The  velocity  therein  will  vary  from  about  3.1  feet  per 
second,  with  a  draft  of  26  million  gallons  per  day,  to  about  8.6 
feet  per  second  when  flowing  at  its  rated  capacity. 

(14)  Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir  with  a  proposed  high  water  elevation 
of   575   feet,   a  length   from   inlet   to  intake  of   0.63  mile  and  a 
capacity  of  360  million  gallons.     This  reservoir  is  now  under  con- 
struction.    It  is  being  created  by  an  hydraulic-fill  dam.     Like 
Upper  Franklin  Eeservoir  this  basin  will  serve  as  a  distributing 
reservoir  for  the  City. 

(15)  A  main  riveted  steel  pipe  line  about  7.0  miles  in  length  connecting 
Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir  with  the  district  in  Los  Angeles  sup- 
plied from  the  aqueduct  system.     This  line  has  a  rated  carrying 
capacity   of    26    million   gallons   per   day.     When   delivering   this 
volume  of  water  the  velocity  therein  is  about  3.1  feet  per  second. 
It   can   deliver   40   million   gallons  per   day,   at   which   rate   the 
velocity  in  the  pipe  line  would  require  to  be  5.3  feet  per  second. 

STORAGE  CAPACITY  AND  STOEAGE  PEEIOD. 

The  total  storage  capacity  of  the  reservoirs  now  built  and  build- 
ing, through  which  water  supplied  to  consumers  in  Los  Angeles  must  pass 
on  its  way  from  the  source  of  supply  in  Owens  Valley,  is  23,570  million  gal- 
lons. From  the  data  just  presented,  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  time 


40  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

factor  in  the  conduits  and  reservoirs  of  the  system  with  the  exception  of 
the  storage  period  in  Haiwee  Eeservoir.  If  maintained  half  full  of  water 
this  will  never  be  less  than  38  days  with  an  ultimate  development  of  works 
represented  by  272  million  gallons  per  day.  With  the  use  of  water  at  the 
rate  of  26  million  gallons  daily,  as  at  present,  the  storage  period  at  half 
capacity  is  402  days.  The  storage  periods  with  the  reservoir  maintained 
full  of  water  would  be  double  the  figures  just  given. 

Other  reservoirs  are  possible  and  are  proposed  in  the  ultimate  system 
of  works.  With  these  in  service  the  storage  periods  would  be  vastly  pro- 
longed. 

THE  SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY  FEOM  A  SANITAEY  STANDPOINT. 
GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  fundamental  factor  determining  the  degree  of  significant  pollution 
of  any  given  source  of  water  supply  is  the  extent  to  which  it  does  or  may 
receive  the  foecal  wastes  from  human  beings.  Man  himself  is  the  chief 
agent  of  infection  of  mankind.  Animal  infection  is  relatively  unimportant 
and  especially  so  when  matters  of  water  supply  and  the  diseases  which  are 
water  borne  are  considered.  A  moderate  amount  of  organic  matter  in 
water,  in  the  absence  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  must  be  considered  as  entirely 
harmless  and  without  significance.  Long  human  experience  with  waters 
charged  to  varying  degrees  with  the  organic  matter  in  question  has  dem- 
onstrated beyond  peradventure  the  fact  just  stated. 

Theoretically  the  germs  of  one  serious  animal  disease  may  be  carried 
by  water  and  may  cause  sickness  among  human  beings.  This  disease  is 
anthrax.  Throughout  the  hearing  of  the  case  the  counsel  for  the  plaintiffs 
attempted  to  make  a  strong  point  of  this  feature  since  anthrax  to  a  limited 
extent  has  occurred  among  cattle  in  the  Owens  Valley.  The  annals  of 
hygiene,  however,  fail  to  record  one  single  case  of  human  anthrax  which 
can  be  attributed  to  the  drinking  of  an  infected  water  supply. 

It  remains  therefore  to  examine  the  conditions  prevailing  within  the 
drainage  basin  of  the  aqueduct  supply  to  determine  the  extent  to  which 
human  and  perhaps  animal  foecal  wastes  do  or  may  enter  the  streams  and 
cause  their  contamination.  Furthermore,  all  of  the  conditions  of  self -purifi- 
cation of  these  waters  must  be  examined  to  determine  the  likelihood  of  the 
survival  of  any  pathogenic  bacteria,  should  such  enter  the  supply  above 
Haiwee  Reservoir,  until  the  water  is  delivered  to  consumers  in  Los  An- 
geles. 

Between  the  inlet  of  Haiwee  Reservoir  and  the  distribution  system 
in  Los  Angeles,  a  distance  of  196.2  miles  via  the  aqueduct  works,  involving 
a  chain  of  at  least  five  reservoirs  and  perhaps  six,  there  is  not  one  perma- 
nent source  of  contamination  of  the  aqueduct  water.  The  only  temporary 
source  of  possible  contamination  is  the  course  of  San  Francisquito  Canyon 
for  a  distance  of  nine  miles  (*),  wherein  the  aqueduct  waters  are  or  have 
been  allowed  to  flow  during  the  period  required  for  the  construction  of  cer- 
tain tunnels,  fore-bay,  pen-stocks,  power-house  and  tail  works  in  this  sec- 
tion. This  section  is  practically  uninhabited  except  for  the  aqueduct  con- 
struction  camps  near  the  power  house  site.  The  canyon  is  traversed  by  a 
county  road  which  sustains  some  small  amount  of  travel. 

(*)  See  item  6,  page  38. 


BOAKD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONEBS  41 

AEEA  AND  EXTENT  OF  WATERSHED. 

The  total  drainage  area  tributary  to  Owens  River  above  the  intake  of 
the  aqueduct  is  estimated  to  be  2740  square  miles.  That  tributary  to  the 
inlet  of  Haiwee  Reservoir  is  about  3350  square  miles,  including  500  square 
miles  in  the  watershed  of  Cottonwood  Creek  above  the  line  of  the  aqueduct. 
The  drainage  area  directly  tributary  to  Haiwee  Reservoir  is  perhaps  60 
square  miles.  In  general  the  westerly  portion  of  the  drainage  basin  com- 
prising the  easterly  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  is  the  only  part 
from  which  there  is  any  considerable  run-off.  The  easterly  portion  of  the 
drainage  basin  is  comprised  of  the  dry,  arid  westerly  slopes  of  the  White 
and  Inyo  Mountains. 

RESIDENT  POPULATION  AND  ITS  DISPOSITION 
IN  THE  DRAINAGE  BASIN. 

The  total  population  resident  in  the  drainage  basin  of  Owens  River 
above  Haiwee  Reservoir  is  estimated  to  be  about  4600  at  the  present  time. 
Roughly  speaking  the  bulk  of  this  population  is  grouped  in  four  districts,  as 
follows:  in  Round  Valley,  in  and  around  Bishop,  in  and  around  Big  Pine, 
and  in  and  around  Independence.  There  are  perhaps  1150  dwellings  within 
the  drainage  basin  and  of  these  fully  650  are  scattered  and  are  outside  of 
the  villages  just  named.  From  figures  presented  in  the  last  Federal  census 
reports  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  not  more  than  350  farm  or  ranch 
houses  in  this  entire  area  of  3350  square  miles  in  question.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  average  density  of  population  is  but  1.4  persons  per  square  mile. 

There  is  scarcely  a  large  impounding  reservoir  in  the  United  States  on 
whose  watershed  the  population  is  so  sparse  as  that  tributary  to  the  Los 
Angeles  Aqueduct  at  Haiwee  Reservoir.  The  average  density  of  population 
on  77  reservoir  watersheds  in  Massachusetts,  a  state  of  notably  excellent 
and  safe  water  supplies,  is  132  per  square  mile.  The  density  of  population 
on  the  reservoir  drainage  basins  of  Boston,  Worcester,  Fall  River,  New 
Bedford  and  Brockton,  Mass.,  and  Rochester  and  Syracuse,  New  York, 
ranges  from  21  to  210  times  as  great  as  that  upon  the  watershed  tributary  to 
Haiwee  Reservoir.  In  none  of  these  cases  is  the  water  purified  and  made 
safe  in  any  other  way  than  by  storage.  In  none  of  these  cases  is  a  reser- 
voir filled  by  any  other  way  than  from  its  own  watershed  under  conditions, 
especially  as  regards  flood,  which  are  not  controllable. 

There  is  but  one  incorporated  place  on  the  drainage  area  above  Haiwee 
Reservoir.  This  is  the  little  City  of  Bishop,  estimated  to  have  a  population 
of  1500  at  present.  There  are  but  two  unincorporated  hamlets  or  villages 
in  the  drainage  area.  These  are  Big  Pine,  having  a  population  of  perhaps 
300,  and  Independence,  the  County  seat,  having  a  population  of  200. 

From  the  best  statistics  available  it  appears  that  the  animal  (domestic) 
population  of  the  area  is  35,700,  of  which  40%  are  cattle  and  38%  sheep 
and  goats.     On  the  average  there  is  one  domestic  animal  to  every  60  acres 
in  the  drainage  area. 
NATURE  AND  EXTENT  OF  POLLUTION. 

The  City  of  Bishop  is  provided  with  a  sewerage  system  serving  approxi- 
mately two-thirds  of  the  population  or  perhaps  1,000  persons.  On  account 
of  the  high  ground  water  in  this  district,  the  sewers  have  been  underdrained. 
The  underdrains  for  some  unaccountable  reason  have  been  arranged  to  dis- 


42  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT 

charge  into  the  sanitary  sewers  at  the  manholes.  In  consequence  the  flow 
is  relatively  very  large  and  the  sewage  is  correspondingly  very  weak.  The 
present  total  daily  flow  of  sewage  is  perhaps  500,000  gallons,  or  500  gallons 
per  capita  connected  with  the  sewers.  The  sewage  is  treated  in  a  septic 
tank  of  the  Cameron  type,  and  the  effluent  is  discharged  through  ditches 
upon  land.  For  the  most  part  it  disappears  through  seepage  into  the  coarse 
gravelly  soil,  but  at  times  at  least  a  portion  of  it  overflows  lands  to  the 
southeast  of  the  septic  tank  and  enters  a  slough  which,  after  a  long  course 
with  many  interruptions  in  the  shape  of  ponds,  lagoons  and  marshes,  reaches 
Owens  Kiver  or  Big  Pine  Canal,  according  to  conditions.  If  received  into 
Big  Pine  Canal,  which  is  believed  generally  to  be  the  case,  it  is  carried  far 
to  the  south  where  it  disappears  entirely  through  seepage  and  does  not  enter 
Owens  Kiver  or  any  of  its  direct  tributaries.  Just  east  of  the  location  of  the 
septic  tank  there  is  a  low  ridge  of  sandy  land  which  mechanical  analyses 
of  properly  collected  samples  show  to  be  perfectly  adapted  to  sewage  dis- 
posal by  intermittent  sand  filtration.  The  sewage  of  Bishop  could  unques- 
tionably be  disposed  of  in  a  most  effective  and  innocuous  way  upon  filter 
beds  properly  constructed  and  operated  upon  the  site  in  question. 

Five  hundred  persons  in  the  town  of  Bishop  and  the  remaining  3100 
persons  elsewhere  in  the  drainage  area  are  provided  with  privies.  It  seemed 
to  be  possible  to  find  but  one  privy  in  all  this  number,  namely  900,  which 
discharged  its  contents  directly  into  any  natural  stream  or  irrigation  canal. 
The  exception  noted  was  at  once  suppressed.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  is 
another  equivalent  number  of  inhabitants  in  rural  America  who  have  so 
completely  refrained,  as  have  the  people  in  Owens  Valley,  from  directly 
polluting  the  local  streams  and  irrigating  waters.  In  a  very  few  instances' 
investigation  showed  that  privies  were  in  existence  at  distances  as  small  as 
from  4  to  6  feet  of  controllable  water  courses,  such  as  irrigation  ditches,  but 
the  vast  majority,  say  fully  95%,  were  located  at  substantial  distances 
from  such  water  courses. 

It  has  become  the  custom  in  Owens  Valley  to  build  stock  corrals  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  natural  streams  or  with  irrigation  ditches  passing 
through  them.  In  a  very  few  of  these  corrals  it  is  possible  that  considerable 
amounts  of  manure  may  be  washed  by  very  heavy  rains  or  high  water,  into 
the  streams.  A  careful  study  of  the  conditions  has  shown  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  water  courses  passing  through  the  corrals  are  irrigation 
ditches  and  are  controllable  with  respect  to  the  volume  of  water  flowing 
therein.  In  very  many  instances  these  ditches  are  above  the  general  level 
of  the  corrals. 

It  can  be  stated  positively  that  the  conditions  within  the  drainage  area 
tributary  to  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  above  Haiwee  Eeservoir  are  unusually 
good,  for  rural  communities,  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  human  or  animal 
contamination  of  the  water  supply.  Furthermore,  the  conditions  are  such 
that,  with  a  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  through  sanitary 
inspection,  the  conditions  can  be  made  thoroughly  satisfactory. 

THE  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM  FROM  A  SANITARY  STANDPOINT 
LONGEVITY  OF  PATHOGENIC  BACTERIA. 

It  is  apparent  that  if,  under  all  circumstances,  the  length  of  time 
required  for  any  water  supply  to  pass  from  the  last  possible  source  of 


LOST  LAKE  AND  Mr.    MORRISON 
(TRIBUTARY  TO  THE  OWENS  RIVER) 


MAMMOTH    MOUNTAIN    FROM    LOST  LAKE  TRAIL 
(PART  OF  OWENS  RIVER  DRAINAGE  AREA) 


BOAED  OF  PUBLIC  SEEVICE  COMMISSIONEES  43 

pollution  to  the  point  of  distribution  and  use  is  greater  than  the  longevity 
of  pathogenic  organisms  under  the  environmental  conditions  which  obtain, 
then  such  a  supply  must  become  safe.  The  result  is  the  same  as  that  which 
would  be  secured  by  other  processes,  as  by  filtration  or  chemical  disinfec- 
tion. Herein  lies  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  purification  of  water 
supplies  by  storage. 

Thfe  pathogenic  bacteria  are,  as  a  class,  used  only  to  the  rich  warm 
juices  of  the  animal  body.  If,  perchance,  they  are  cast  into  the  relatively 
cold  environment  of  a  body  of  water  they  are  at  once  confronted  with  con- 
ditions which  are  unusual  and  untoward.  They  cannot  long  survive. 

The  period  representing  the  viability  of  pathogenic  bacteria  causing 
the  water-borne  diseases  constituted  one  of  the  chief  features  of  contention 
between  the  parties  during  the  hearing  of  the  cases  in  question.  The  evi- 
dence seemed  to  be  overwhelming  (and  even  the  experts  for  the  plaintiff  could 
not  but  acquiesce  if  the  opinions  of  the  authorities  which  they  themselves 
cited,  may  be  relied  upon)  that  the  life  of  such  organisms,  even  of  the 
resistant  minority,  so-called,  must  be  very  brief.  All  recent  experiments 
and  investigations,  conducted  under  modern  laboratory  procedure  and 
having  due  regard  to  the  conditions  actually  prevailing  in  nature,  demon- 
strate that  the  great  mass  of  typhoid  bacilli  introduced  into  an  ordinary 
surface  water  supply  die  out  in  a  very  few  days,  say  two  or  three,  and 
that  all  are  destroyed  within,  say,  two  weeks.  A  storage  period  of  three 
weeks  or  a  month  would  surely  be  sufficient  to  insure  the  destruction  of  all 
bacteria  causing  the  group  of  diseases  in  question.  Of  these  diseases  typhoid 
fever  is,  in  America,  by  very  far  the  most  important.  In  the  tropics 
cholera  is  the  most  dreadful  water-borne  disease.  All  available  evidence 
goes  to  show  that  the  longevity  of  the  cholera  vibrio  is  substantially  less 
than  that  of  the  typhoid  bacillus.  Bacteria  causing  bacillary  dysentery  are 
probably  but  little,  if  any,  longer  lived  in  water  supplies  than  are  the  typhoid 
bacilli. 

AGENCIES  OF  SELF  PURIFICATION. 

There  are  many  inter-related  agencies  or  factors  tending  to  separate 
and  destroy  any  pathogenic  bacteria  which  may  enter  a  stored  water  supply. 
Those  which  seem  to  be  the  principal  factors  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

(1)  devitalization,   the    general   result   of     an    unfavorable    environment; 

(2)  dilution  or  separation,  reducing  the  number  of  organisms  per  unit  of 
volume;   (3)  equalization  or  the  tendency  to  produce  uniformity  in  numbers 
and  conditions;  (4)  sedimentation,  both  in  the  presence  of  particles  of  con- 
siderable subsiding  value  and  without;   (5)  the  inhibiting  and  destructive 
action  of  sunlight;    (6)   the  inhibiting  and  devitalizing  effect  of  relatively 
low  temperatures;  (7)  low  or  different  and  always  unsuitable  food  supply; 
(8)  the  inhibiting  and  destructive  effect  of  the  toxic  products  of  saprophytic 
bacteria;  (9)  the  ill-defined  action  of  osmosis.    The  net  result  of  the  action 
and  inter-action  of  these  several  factors  may  be  summed  up  in  the  term 
' '  general  unfavorable  environment. ' '    In  considering  the  efficiency  of  storage 
in  the  destruction   of  pathogenic  bacteria,  it  is  only  necessary  to  insure 
that  the  time  factor  is  sufficient;  in  other  words,  that  the  time  elapsing  be 
FO  great  that  any  disease  producing  bacteria  discharged  from  the  human 
organism  will  be  destroyed  before  those  same  germs  can  be  re-ingested  by 


44  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

other  human  beings.  The  expression  "those  same  germs"  is  used  advisedly 
since  all  the  evidence  at  hand  shows  that  under  the  environmental  condi- 
tions herein  considered,  the  pathogenic  bacteria  in  question  cannot  multiply 
or  produce  their  kind.  The  problem,  therefore,  becomes  one  of  destroying 
certain  bacteria  which  are  extremely  sensitive  to  environmental  conditions 
and  which  cannot  long  survive  those  which  are  untoward. 

EESEEVOIBS  AS  SANITARY  SAFEGUARDS 
AND  PURIFYING  AGENCIES. 

A  chain  is  only  as  strong  as  the  weakest  link  determines;  a  reservoir, 
as  respects  the  destruction  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  is  only  so  safe  as  the 
minimum  time  factor  represents.  Most  storage  reservoirs  are  filled  directly 
by  the  tributary  streams  from  their  own  immediate  watersheds.  Very  many 
of  these  are  subject  to  "short-circuiting"  by  floods,  which  pass  rapidly 
through  them,  or  by  waters,  contributed  from  portions  of  their  watersheds, 
which  are  concentrated  close  to  their  outlets.  Thus,  one  of  the  most  notable 
reservoirs  employed  for  domestic  water  supply  purposes  in  California  has 
a  capacity  represented  by  fully  500  days  of  the  safe  yield  of  the  catchment 
area,  yet  during  maxima  floods  there  has  been  wasted  over  its  spillway 
in  two  days'  time  a  volume  of  water  equivalent  to  the  entire  reservoir 
prism.  Again,  one  of  the  lakes  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the  testimony  in 
behalf  of  the  plaintiff  as  having  been  short-circuited  by  wind  action,  has 
5%  of  its  total  drainage  area  tributary  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  its 
outlet  where  the  water  works  intake  was  located.  About  14%  of  the 
drainage  area  was  tributary  at  a  point  three  miles  from  the  intake  in  ques- 
tion, the  lake  being  eleven  miles  in  length.  Approximately  22%  of  the 
watershed  area  was  tributary  to  the  shores  of  the  lake  through  very  large 
numbers  of  small  water  courses.  The  lake  shores  are  populated  by  large 
numbers  of  summer  residents  and  the  entire  drainage  basin  is  comprised 
in  a  farming  community  and  probably  supports  no  less  than  forty  persons 
per  square  mile,  representing  nearly  thirty  times  the  average  density  of 
population  on  the  drainage  basin  tributary  to  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct. 

The  possible  effects  of  wind  in  tending  to  induce  short-circuiting  in 
reservoirs  received  much  attention  on  the  part  of  the  witnesses  for  the 
plaintiff.  It  naturally  was  attempted  to  make  as  much  of  this  matter  as 
possible.  The  conditions  of  shape,  depth  and  topography  of  the  surrounding 
country  at  Haiwee  Reservoir  did  not,  however,  lend  themselves  readily  to 
such  arguments  as  these  witnesses  were  able  to  offer.  Indeed,  such  experi- 
ments and  observations  as  could  be  made  at  the  reservoir  with  reference 
to  this  general  matter  seemed  to  weaken  rathen  than  to  support  the  theories 
advanced. 

Notwithstanding  the  limitations  to  which  storage  reservoirs  in  general 
are  subject,  the  available  information  shows  that  they  are  in  general  among 
the  greatest  of  sanitary  safeguards  for  water  supplies;  and  supplies  derived 
therefrom  are,  on  the  average,  fully  as  safe  if  not  actually  safer  than  the 
effluents  of  modern  water  purification  plants  of  various  accepted  types. 
Of  the  fifty  cities  in  the  United  States  having  in  1910  populations  of  100,000 
or  over,  eight  have  water  supplies  which  are  protected  and  purified  by 
storage  alone,  and  eleven  others  either  have  safe  ground  water  supplies  or 
else  are  sterilizing  their  supplies,  in  some  cases  subsequently  to  filtration. 


BOARD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  45 

The  average  typhoid  fever  death  rate  per  100,000  for  the  five-year  period 
1909-1913  for  the  first  group  of  eight  cities  was  8.0  while  that  for  the  second 
group  of  eleven  cities  was  13.2. 

The  typhoid  fever  death  rate  in  forty-three  cities  and  towns  in  Massa- 
chusetts whose  water  supplies  are  purified  by  storage  alone  was  only  8.08 
per  100,000  for  the  three-year  period  1910-1912.  The  average  rate  for  the 
entire  state  during  the  same  period  was  9.5. 

NATUEE  AND  CAPACITIES  OF  EESEEVOIES 
IN  AQUEDUCT  SYSTEM. 

The  general  nature  and  capacities  of  the  several  reservoirs  now  built 
or  building  in  connection  with  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  project  have  been 
briefly  discussed  in  the  foregoing  pages.  It  is,  of  course,  patent  that  if 
reservoirs  are  empty  they  become  no  better  than  stream  beds  and  the  time 
factor  becomes  little  or  nothing.  In  estimating  upon  the  time  factor  which 
will  apply  to  the  Aqueduct  works,  it  has  been  necessary  to  assume  some 
storage  below  which  the  reservoirs  will  never  be  drawn.  A  careful  study 
of  the  whole  matter  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  Haiwee  Eeservoir  could 
and  should  be  maintained  at  a  stage  representing  never  less  than  one-half 
capacity  and  that  the  remaining  reservoirs  in  the  chain  at  stages  never  less 
than  two-thirds  capacity.  Such  assumptions  require  that  the  water  resources 
of  the  system  be  sufficient,  dependable  and  available  upon  demand.  That 
such  will  be  the  case  has  been  demonstrated  by  a  long  series  of  stream 
measurements  and  underground  water  investigations. 

Haiwee  Eeservoir  has  in  its  bottom  certain  depressions  of  considerable 
size  which  are  below  the  lowest  intake  level.  It,  therefore,  can  never  be 
drained  completely  by  gravity  even  if  this  were  desired.  All  of  the  other 
reservoirs  of  the  system,  excepting  perhaps  San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  2, 
must  from  the  very  nature  of  their  purpose,  be  maintained  at  all  times  as 
full  as  possible. 

As  stated  above  Haiwee  Eeservoir  is  notable  from  the  fact  that  it  is  so 
very  large  and  yet  is  not  filled  from  its  own  watershed  but  only  through  a 
60-mile  line  of  aqueduct  in  which  the  flow  is  absolutely  under  control  at 
all  times.  The  maximum  rate  of  filling,  with  no  draft  upon  the  reservoir — 
an  impossible  condition — cannot  be  more  than  650  million  gallons  per  day, 
equivalent  to  only  one-thirty-second  of  the  total  capacity  of  this  huge 
reservoir.  There  are,  of  course,  reservoirs  fed  directly  from  their  own 
drainage  basins  which  do  not  fill  and  cannot  be  filled  except  in  a  prolonged 
interval.  However,  very  few,  if  any,  of  these  reservoirs  receive  their  entire 
supply  at  one  end  and  draw  it  from  the  other  and  few  are  as  well  calculated 
to  insure  total  displacement  in  so  doing  as  is  Haiwee  Eeservoir.  A  usual 
case  is  the  one  cited  on  page  44.  Another  well  known  illustration  is  the 
Boonton  Eeservoir  which,  although  fully  two  miles  in  length,  receives  its 
supply  almost  entirely  at  a  point  only  3,900  feet  distant  from  the  intake 
of  the  water  works  which  is  located  at  one  end  of  the  dam  creating  tin 
storage  basin. 

The  catchment  areas  of  all  of  the  other  reservoirs  in  the  aqueduct  system 
are  also  small  and  uninhabited  and  the  supply  of  water  received  therefrom 
is  safe  and  entirely  suitable  for  domestic  purposes. 

Assuming  that  Haiwee  Eeservoir  is  maintained  at  least  one-half  full  of 


46  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT 

water  and  the  other  reservoirs  of  the  system  (exclusive  of  San  Fernando 
Eeservoir  No.  2)  at  least  two-thirds  full,  the  total  minimum  storage  period 
in  the  system  at  various  stages  of  draft  or  development  will  be  as  follows: 

Draft  per  Day  Days  in  Storage  and  Transit 

26  million  gallons*  468* 

136  million  gallons  122 

272  million  gallons  65 

*San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  1  and  Lower  Franklin  Reservoir  not  in 
use:  San  Fernando  Eeservoir  No.  2  by-passed. 

By  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that,  even  with  ultimate  development 
when  the  draft  reaches  an  average  of  272  million  gallons  per  day,  the 
minimum  period  required  for  the  water  to  pass  from  the  inlet  of  Haiwee 
Eeservoir  to  consumers  in  Los  Angeles,  under  the  assumed  conditions  of 
stage,  would  be  65  days.  This  interval  is  so  great  that  there/  will  be  not  the 
slightest  likelihood  of  the  survival  of  any  pathogenic  bacteria  which  might 
by  chance  enter  the  supply  at  the  source.  Under  the  draft  conditions 
existing  at  the  time  of  the  hearing  of  the  cases  in  question,  the  time  interval 
was  fully  468  days.  With  the  works  developed  to  one-half  their  ultimate 
capacity,  the  time  factor  in  question  will  be  fully  122  days  under  the  con- 
ditions of  stage  assumed. 

YIELD  OF  SOUECE  AS  EELATED  TO  TIME  FACTOE. 

Very  careful  series  of  long-time  gaugings  and  various  studies  of  water 
resources  have  shown  that  the  yield  of  surface  water  from  Owens  Eiver 
and  the  creeks  tributary  to  the  line  of  the  aqueduct  above  Haiwee  Eeservoir 
is  sufficient  to  maintain  this  reservoir  at  a  stage  representing  never  less 
than  five-sixths  of  full  capacity  during  the  most  critical  period  covered 
during  the  period  of  record  (January  1,  1904  to  date),  when  the  average 
draught  upon  the  system  is  one-half  of  the  ultimate  contemplated  develop- 
ment, namely  136  million  gallons  per  day.  To  maintain  the  reservoir  two- 
thirds  full  during  a  critical  period  of  the  same  severity  as  that  just  referred 
to  when  the  works  are  developed  to  the  point  where  the  average  draft  is 
272  million  gallons  per  day  will  require  a  supplementary  supply  either  from 
the  ground  or  from  storage  in  reservoirs  constructed  along  the  upper  reaches 
of  Owens  Eiver.  It  is  the  present  intention  to  develop  this  auxiliary  supply 
from  the  extraordinarily  large  underground  resources  of  the  Independence 
region  by  means  of  wells.  It  would  also  be  completely  possible  to  develop 
it,  it  is  believed,  through  the  storage  of  flood  waters  in  the  proposed  Long 
Valley  and  Tinemaha  Eeservoirs,  one  or  both,  as  might  be  found  needful. 
The  opportunities  for  such  storage,  especially  in  Long  Valley,  appear  to  be 
remarkably  good. 

To  maintain  Haiwee  Eeservoir  half-full  of  water  under  the  conditions 
stated  will  demand  a  maximum  rate  of  supplementary  feeding  (from  wells 
or  other  storage)  of  about  140  million  gallons  per  day.  The  average  daily 
demand  during  this  most  critical  period  would  be  about  75  million  gallons. 
An  extended  series  of  observations  in  Owens  Valley  (see  United  States 
Geological  Survey  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  294)  has  demonstrated  con- 
clusively that  a  system  of  wells  can  readily  be  developed  to  yield  the  total 
quantity  of  water  demanded  by  the  conditions  in  question  at  the  maximum 
rate  just  noted.  The  storage  and  underground  water  studies  forming  the 
basis  of  conclusions  just  stated  were  made  by  Mr.  Charles  H.  Lee. 


BOARD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  47 

The  sound  deduction  from  all  of  these  studies  whose  results  were 
largely  presented  in  the  city's  behalf  during  the  hearing  before  Judge 
Works,  must  be:  (1)  that  the  storage  may  readily  be  maintained  at  the 
stages  assumed  during  the  most  critical  period  covered  by  the  record  to 
date — and  this  period,  September  3,  1912,  to  October  31,  1913,  must  be  re- 
garded as  representing  an  extraordinary  drought  such  as  has  probably 
seldom  occurred  in  California  in  modern  times — and  (2)  that,  if  such 
storage  is  maintained,  the  time  factor  will  be  so  great  as  to  represent  the 
highest  possible  efficiency  in  the  destruction  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  should 
they  appear  in  the  sources  of  supply,  thereby  rendering  the  water  safe  and 
wholesome  when  delivered  to  consumers  in  the  city. 

QUALITY   OF   WATER  FROM   AQUEDUCT    SYSTEM. 
CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  WATER. 

The  witnesses  for  the  plaintiff  notwithstanding,  it  seems  to  be  per- 
fectly true  that  all  up-to-date  competent  authorities  are  now  agreed  that 
organic  matter  in  water,  at  least  in  any  reasonable  amount  which  is  likely 
to  obtain  in  surface  sources,  even  those  which  are  heavily  charged  with 
sewage,  is  quite  without  significance  if  harmful  bacteria  are  absent.  Chem- 
ical analysis  is  unable  to  give  any  definite  information  with  respect  to 
the  character  or  number  of  bacteria  present.  It  may  be  concluded  that 
the  so-called  sanitary  analysis,  which  attempts  to  determine  the  amount 
and  state  of  nitrogenous  matters  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water,  has 
practically  served  its  day  and,  except  in  certain  routine  work  and  for 
special  cases  and  conditions,  must  be  relegated  to  the  past.  Nowhere  else 
does  the  impossibility  of  consistent  interpretation  of  this  sanitary  analysis 
appear  quite  so  prominently  as  in  so-called  expert  testimony  where  the 
parties  to  the  suit  on  the  same  data  are  trying  to  demonstrate  different 
conclusions. 

The  attorney  for  the  plaintiffs  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  during  the 
hearing  of  the  cases  in  question  upon  the  results  of  certain  chemical  analyses 
collected  from  the  aqueduct  system  and  from  Owens  River  and  its  tributaries 
at  various  points  on  two  different  occasions.  The  learned  witnesses  who 
interpreted  the  results  of  the  analyses  pronounced  the  water  from  Haiwee 
Reservoir  and  all  points  below  as  entirely  unsafe  and  unfit  for  drinking 
purposes.  They  pictured  the  horrible  ptomaine  and  toxic  catastrophies 
which  would  visit  death  and  destruction  upon  the  innocent  inhabitants  of 
Los  Angeles  should  the  wicked  Board  of  Public  Service  Commissioners 
permit  this  vile  fluid  to  be  supplied  for  domestic  uses. 

As  a  check  upon  the  analyses  produced  by  these  experts,  the  analysts 
for  the  city  also  collected  water  from  the  various  parts  of  the  system  and 
made  these  so-called  sanitary  analyses  upon  them.  The  results  of  the  two 
groups  of  analyses  were  not  hopelessly  different  if  exception  is  taken  with 
respect  to  the  results  of  certain  analyses  which  one  of  the  witnesses  for 
the  plaintiff  made  on  samples  which  were  stored  for  as  many  as  ten  days 
before  the  analytical  work  was  performed. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  compare  The  analyses  of  samples  collected  at 
the  intake  of  the  aqueduct  on  Owens  River  with  those  of  Massachusetts 
water  supplies  derived  from  153  surface  sources  for  which  records  extending 
over  long  periods  have  been  systematically  obtained.  The  average  analyses 


48  FOUETEENTH  ANNUAL  BE  POET 

for  the  five-year  period  1905-1909  for  110  sources  out  of  the  total  number 
of  153  were  as  high  or  higher  with  respect  to  free  ammonia,  144  sources 
were  as  high  or  higher  as  respects  albuminoid  ammonia  and  15  sources  were 
as  high  or  higher  with  respect  to  nitrates.  The  nitrite  content  of  surface 
waters  was  not  summarized  in  the  Massachusetts  statistics  referred  to  (41st 
Annual  Keport,  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  1909,  pages  201-225), 
perhaps  because  it  was  too  variable  and  uncertain  to  be  of  interest. 

The  results  of  analyses  of  samples  collected  further  down  in  the  system, 
near  the  point  of  distribution,  namely  in  the  section  between  the  San  Fer- 
nando Reservoirs  and  Franklin  Reservoirs,  may  be  of  interest  as  compared 
with  the  results  for  the  same  group  of  Massachusetts  surface  water  sources 
above  referred  to.  Of  the  total  of  153  sources  represented,  14  were  as  high 
or  higher  with  respect  to  free  ammonia,  58  as  high  or  higher  with  respect  to 
albuminoid  ammonia  and  3  as  high  or  higher  with  respect  to  nitrates.  No 
one  has  ever  discovered  or  complained  that  the  state  of  health  in  the 
various  communities  having  these  higher  amounts  of  nitrogenous  material 
in  their  drinking  waters  was  not  fully  as  good  as  that  in  the  communities 
having  water  supplies  extraordinarily  low  in  organic  composition. 

In  order  to  show  what  effect,  if  any,  the  drinking  of  waters  heavily 
charged  with  organic  matter  might  have  upon  the  health  of  consumers  as 
compared  with  those  low  in  organic  content,  the  general  death  rates  in  15 
Massachusetts  cities  and  towns  deriving  their  water  supplies  from  storage 
reservoirs  containing  the  largest  amounts  of  albuminoid  ammonia  and  high 
free  ammonia  were  compared  with  those  of  15  other  cities  and  towns  in 
Massachusetts  whose  water  supplies  from  storage  reservoirs  were  generally 
lowest  in  albuminoid  ammonia  and  low  in  free  ammonia.  The  analyses 
and  vital  statistics  covered  the  same  period,  namely  the  five-year  period 
1905-1909,  inclusive.  The  study  showed  that  the  general  death  rates  in 
the  two  groups  of  cities  were  practically  identical,  being  0.01  per  1000 
higher  in  the  cities  supplied  with  waters  lowest  in  organic  content,  as  repre- 
sented by  albuminoid  and  free  ammonia. 

The  mineral  composition  of  the  water  derived  from  the  aqueduct  system 
was  not  projected  into  the  hearing  of  the  cases.  On  this  feature  there  can 
be  no  controversy.  Daily  samples  for  the  entire  year  1908  were  collected 
from  Owens  River  just  above  the  aqueduct  intake  and  were  analyzed  for 
their  mineral  composition  in  10-day  composites  in  the  laboratories  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  The  water  was  found  to  carry  only  16 
parts  per  million  of  turbidity.  The  suspended  matter  causing  the  turbidity 
was  found  to  be  extremely  coarse  and  capable  of  settling  almost  completely 
out  of  the  water  in  a  very  short  period.  The  average  turbidity  is  only 
13%  of  the  average  of  the  Sacramento  River  at  Sacramento,  15%  of  that 
of  the  Potomac  River  at  Washington,  30%  of  that  of  the  Susquehanna 
River  at  Harrisburg,  41%  of  that  of  the  Delaware  River  at  Philadelphia 
and  55%  of  that  of  the  Hudson  River  at  Albany.  The  maximum  turbidity 
of  Owens  River  water  was  found  to  be  only  about  3  or  4  times  the  average. 
The  maxima  turbidities  of  all  of  the  streams  mentioned  above  are  many 
times  the  average  values  for  these  rivers. 

The  total  hardness  of  the  water  of  Owens  River  was  shown  not  to  be 
excessive  when  compared  with  that  of  the  majority  of  the  water  supplies  of 


BOAED  OP  PUBLIC  SEEVICE  COMMISSIONERS  49 

the  municipalities  in  California.  The  supplies  of  Alameda,  Berkeley,  Fresno, 
Oakland,  Pasadena,  Redlands,  Riverside,  San  Bernardino,  San  Diego,  San 
Francisco  and  Stockton  all  have  an  average  total  hardness  greater  than  that 
of  Owens  River.  The  Los  Angeles  River  supply  at  the  headworks  has  a 
total  hardness  150%  greater,  and  at  Crystal  Springs  a  hardness  67%  greater 
than  that  of  Owens  River  water. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  WATER. 

All  analyses  show  that  at  the  inlet  of  Haiwee  Reservoir  the  aqueduct 
supply  contains  considerable  numbers  of  bacteria  of  the  species  developing 
on  agar  at  37°  C.  In  the  eight  samples  taken  by  the  analysts  of  both  parties 
to  the  suit  and  whose  analyses  are  available,  the  numbers  ranged  from  50 
to  2100  per  cc.  Four,  or  50%,  of  the  samples  were  negative  for  B.  coli.  In 
two  of  the  other  samples  the  organism  was  present  in  10  cc.  and  in  the  re- 
maining two  samples  it  was  present  in  1  cc. 

Eight  samples  of  water  were  collected  for  bacteriological  analysis  at 
the  intake  of  Haiwee  Reservoir  by  Messrs.  Wilson  and  Brem  for  the  city. 
The  counts  on  agar  ranged  from  60  to  1800  per  ec.  and  averaged  800.  B. 
coli  was  not  found  in  any  of  the  samples.  The  analysts  for  the  plaintiffs  in 
the  two  sets  of  samples  collected  at  this  point  succeeded  in  finding  B.  coli 
in  0.4  and  0.5  cc. 

On  general  principles,  as  enunciated  above,  it  is  obvious  that  real  interest 
should  center  in  the  bacteriological  character  of  the  water  of  the  Aqueduct 
system  as  delivered  to  consumers  in  Los  Angeles.  Many  samples  of  water 
were  collected  by  the  analysts  for  the  City  at  various  times  at  points  care- 
fully selected  to  represent  as  comprehensively  as  possible  the  entire  area 
in  the  city  supplied  by  the  Aqueduct  works.  These  were  all  examined  in 
accordance  with  the  most  rigorous  procedure  with  the  following  results: 

B.  coli 

Name  of     No.  of  Samples       Average . 

Analyst          Examined    Total  Count*     Neg.  in         Pos.  in        Pos.  in 

10  cc.          10  cc.          1  cc. 


Black 

13 

60 

12 

1 

0 

Brem 

23 

210 

15 

8 

0 

Wilson 

23 

330 

21 

2 

0 

*0n  agar 

at  37°  C.,  24 

hours. 

The  results  are  surely  very  satisfactory.  B.  coli,  the  typical  intestinal 
organism  of  both  man  and  animals,  were  not  found  once  in  1  cc.  in  the  59 
samples  represented.  They  were  found  in  10  cc.  portions  of  11  samples  or 
in  about  23%  of  the  entire  number  examined.  Considering  the  newness 
of  the  reservoirs,  the  large  numbers  of  water  fowl  thereon  and  the  (tem- 
porary) exposure  to  animal  contamination  in  San  Francisquito  Canyon,  it 
seems  wholly  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  intestinal  organisms  found 
were  entirely  from  animal  sources  and  had  no  sanitary  significance. 

The  significance  of  the  presence  of  B.  coli  in  a  water  supply  rests,  of 
course,  in  the  fact  that  if  intestinal  germs  are  present  from  human  sources, 
the  pathogenic  bacteria  which  cause  the  water-borne  diseases  may  also  be 
present.  In  so  far  as  the  opinion  of  sanitarians  has  been  crystalized  at  all 
with  respect  to  the  significance  of  B.  coli  in  surface  waters,  it  would  seem 
to  be  that  the  occasional  presence  in  10  cc.  or  even  in  1  cc.  has  but  little 


50  FOUETEENTE  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

sanitary  significance.  If  this  organism  is  persistently  present  in  1  cc.  of 
samples  examined  there  is  good  ground  for  the  belief  that  the  source  is 
no  longer  harmless  animal  pollution  but  rather  the  more  constant  and  dan- 
gerous wastes  from  human  beings. 

An  interesting  side  light  was  thrown  upon  the  theory  that  water  fowl 
might  be  responsible  for  the  B.  coli  found  in  the  waters  of  Franklin  Res- 
ervoir  and  in  part  for  those  found  in  the  other  storage  basins  of  the  system. 
Two  wild  duck  were  shot  in  Upper  Franklin  Eeservoir  and  their  intestinal 
tracts  were  examined  for  B.  coli.  This  organism  was  present  true  to  type 
in  enormous  numbers  in  each  case,  the  average  being  about  50,000,000  per 
gram  of  dejecta  in  the  intestinal  canals. 

It  is  a  striking  and  significant  fact  that  the  chief  witness  for  the 
plaintiff  made  no  bacteriological  examinations  whatever  of  the  water  from 
the  AqueducT  system  as  delivered  to  consumers  in  Los  Angeles.  Two  samples 
only  were  reported  by  another  witness.  Both  samples  were  taken  at  the 
same  date  at  the  residence  of  E.  M.  Frost.  The  total  count  was  given  as 
110  per  cc.  (presumably  after  72  hours  incubation  at  37°  C.  on  agar). 
B.  coli  were  reported  as  absent  in  5  cc.  of  one  sample  and  as  identified  in 
1  cc.  of  the  second  sample.  It  is  difficult  to  state  how  much  value  may  be 
placed  upon  the  work  of  this  witness  since,  during  cross-examination  in  the 
hearing  before  Judge  Works,  she  naively  admitted  that  she  had  been 
employed  to  find  pollution  and  that  samples  which  did  not  show  such  con- 
ditions were  discarded. 

POSSIBILITY  OF  DISINFECTION  OF  ENTIRE  WATER  SUPPLY. 

It  has  now  become  possible  to  effectively  disinfect  public  water  sup- 
plies in  the  largest  volumes  at  an  extremely  low  cost  and  with  the  minimum 
of  attention  employing  either  liquid  chlorine  or  hypochlorite  of  calcium 
(bleaching  powder).  If  at  any  future  time  it  is  desired — for  aesthetic 
reasons  or  to  ' '  make  assurance  doubly  sure ' ' — to  virtually  sterilize  the  water 
by  either  of  the  methods  stated,  it  can  be  done.  The  conditions  at  Lower 
Franklin  Reservoir  are  ideally  devised  for  such  treatment  so  that  the  water 
entering  the  distribution  system  from  the  Aqueduct  system  may  be  ren- 
dered not  only  practically  free  from  B.  coli,  as  at  present,  but  also  prac- 
tically free  from  all  bacterial  life. 

Chlorination  of  the  supply  from  the  Los  Angeles  River  works  has  now 
been  undertaken  and  is  producing  excellent  results.  All  bacteriological 
samples  collected  from  this  source  during  the  preparation  of  evidence  for 
the  hearing  of  the  cases  in  question  and  prior  to  the  installation  of  chlorin- 
ating devices  were  found  to  contain  B.  coli.  These  were  present  in  91% 
of  1  ce.  samples  and  in  10  cc.  of  all  samples. 

THE  AQUEDUCT  SUPPLY  AS  FULFILLING 
RIGOROUS  QUALITY  REQUIREMENTS. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  water  works  engineering  but  little  attention  was 
paid  to  the  sanitary  character  of  the  supply.  The  principal  object  was  to 
secure  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  Gradually,  with  the  development  of 
a  knowledge  of  bacteriology  and  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  intimate 
relationship  between  water  supplies  and  disease,  the  demand  has  arisen  not 
only  for  abundance  but  also  for  safety  and  aesthetics  as  comprehended  by 


BOARD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  51 

freedom  from  disease  germs  and  as  far  as  possible  from  all  bacterial  life 
and  by  good  appearance  and  taste.  Today  the  requirements  of  quality  and 
quantity  must  be  considered  of  equal  and  absolutely  essential  importance. 
The  failure  of  a  water  supply  to  meet  either  of  these  fundamental  require- 
ments must  be  considered  as  a  real  delinquency  entailing  a  definite  burden 
which  must  be  borne  by  the  community. 

The  production  of  safety  as  well  as  of  good  appearance  in  a  public 
water  supply  has  a  sanitary  and  aesthetic  significance  which  cannot  be 
measured  by  any  financial  standard,  important  as  this  may  be.  The  real 
test  is  not  the  quality  at  the  source;  it  is  the  quality  at  the  point  of  use. 
These  finer  qualities  in  a  water  supply  bespeak  progress,  they  imply  addi- 
tional safety  and  comfort  in  living  and  in  so  far  as  water  supplies  have  to 
do  with  these  matters,  purity  means  better  general  health,  a  real  conserva- 
tion and  promotion  of  those  forces  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  vital  assets 
of  the  community.  Indeed,  the  simple  fact  that  its  water  supply  is  at  all 
times  safe,  wholesome  and  attractive,  rather  than  dangerous  and  of  ill 
appearace,  is  an  asset  of  very  material  worth  to  any  community. 

The  opinion  of  sanitary  engineers,  sanitarians  and  in  general  those  who 
i  re  familiar  with  the  development  of  water  supply  standards,  has  now 
become  crystalized  with  respect  to  the  requirements  which  the  supply  and 
works  must  fulfill.  These  requirements  are  sanitary,  aesthetic,  commercial 
and  protective  in  their  nature.  They  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(a)  Quality— 

(1)  Primarily   the   water   supply   must   be   free    from   pathogenic    or 
disease  producing  organisms.     More  than  this,  it  should  be  free 
from  those  allied  organic  forms  which  may  not  as  yet  be  recog- 
nized as  accompanying  disease,  but  which  may  nevertheless  not  be 
conducive  to  health.     This  condition  of  safety  must  prevail  con- 
tinuously and  the  supply  must  not  be  subject  to  what  may  be 
termed  "accidental"  contamination. 

(2)  The  water  must  be  uniformly  clear  and  free  from  turbidity,  both 
that  which  may  be  produced  by  suspended  mineral  matters,  and 
also  that  which  may  be  due  to  suspended  organic  (vegetable  and 
animal)  growths  or  impurities. 

(3)  The  water  must  not  be  discolored  by  dissolved  vegetable  matters 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  may  be  objectionably  apparent  when 
employed  for  table  use  or  in  the  arts. 

(4)  The  water  must  at  all  times  be  free  from  both  tastes  and  odors, 
either  those  produced  by  dissolved  gases  or  those  which  may  be 
due  to  the  growth  and  decay  of  micro-organisms  (minute  plants 
and  animals  frequenting  lakes,  reservoirs  and  rivers,  but  usually 
prevailing  to  the  least  extent  in  the  last  named  source). 

(5)  The  water  should  be  reasonably  soft  and  of  sufliciently  low  min- 
eral content  so  that  it  shall  be  satisfactory  in  this  respect  not 
only  for  domestic  purposes  but  for  steam  making  and  other  indus- 
trial and  commercial  uses. 

(6)  As  far  as  possible  the  water  should  be  cool  and  palatable. 

(b)  Quantity — 

(7)  The  supply  must  be  abundant  and  unfailing,  but  for  economic 
reasons  must  be  conserved  in  such  manner  that  all  preventable 
waste  shall  be  eliminated. 

(c)  Dependableness — 

(8)  The  pressure  under  which  the  water  shall  continuously  act  in  the 
distribution  pipes  must  be  ample  to  serve  the  various  districts 
according  to  their  specific  character  and  needs. 


52  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT 

(9)  The  system  of  works  must  be  one  in  which  design  and  construc- 
tion may  be  executed  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  successfully 
meet  conditions  imposed  by  the  natural  phenomena  occurring  or 
likely  to  occur  within  the  region  in  question. 

(10)  The  various  structures  in  connection  with  the  system  of  water 
works  should  be  so  located,  arranged,  built  and  protected  that 
they  may  not  be  unduly  exposed  to  fires  or  other  accidents  be- 
falling neighboring  structures. 

The  requirements  which  have  been  outlined  above  are  not  more  exacting 
than  the  principles  of  sanitary  science,  aesthetics,  economics  and  safe  en- 
gineering demand;  in  fact,  they  are  only  rational  requirements  upon  which 
the  public  at  large,  gradually  educated  to  higher  ideals,  will  become  more 
and  more  insistent  as  time  goes  on. 

It  is  pertinent  to  inquire  how  completely  the  character  and  conditions 
of  the  Aqueduct  supply  at  the  point  of  use  do  and  will  measure  up  to  the 
ideal  standards  pronounced  above.  With  respect  to  the  several  qualitative 
standards  we  may  conclude: 

(1)  That  the  supply  is  now  and  will  remain  at  all  times  practically 
free  from  all  pathogenic  bacteria.    If  chemically  treated  according 
to  recently  devised,  cheap  and  readily  applicable  methods — to  which 
the  distributing  works   are  peculiarly  well   adapted,  as  explained 
hereinbefore — it    will    become    practically   free   from    all   bacterial 
life.    It  may  safely  be  assumed,  however,  that  the  present  bacterial 
composition  is  not  unsatisfactory  and  is  entirely  without  sanitary 
significance.    As  soon  as  the  ' '  newness ' '  of  the  reservoirs  wears  off 
and  the  permanent  shore  lines  become  established  there  is  not  the 
slightest   doubt   but   that   the   ordinary   bacterial   content   of    the 
supply  will  be  naturally  and  substantially  decreased. 

(2)  That  the  water  delivered  to  consumers  is  and  will  be  clear,  and 
especially  so  when,  with  increasing  age,  the  permanent  shores  of 
the  reservoirs  become  established.    Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir,  which 
is  the  last  in  the  series  in  the  Aqueduct  system  and  wherein  the 
water  is  stored  immediately  before  it  is  delivered  to  consumers,  is 
ideally  contrived  to  prevent  the  growth  of  algae  and  other  micro- 
organisms, as  well  as  of  bacteria,  by  the  use  of  chemicals. 

(3)  That  the  water  of  Owens  Eiver  and  its  tributaries  is  practically 
colorless   and   free  from   vegetable   stain.     There   is  no   reason   to 
believe  that  its  character  in  this  respect  will  deteriorate  in  passing 
through  the  Aqueduct  system. 

(4)  That  under  the  conditions  which  do  and  will  obtain,  and  in  view 
of  the  fortunate  situation  with  respect  to  Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir 
as  just  noted  in   (2)    above,  the  aqueduct  supply  will  always  be 
satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  odors  and  tastes.     All  storage 
reservoirs  are  more  or  less  subject,  at  intervals,  to  the  growths  of 
micro-organisms.     By  modern  methods  these  can  be  effectively  con- 
trolled. 

(5)  That  as  noted  on  page  49,  the  aqueduct  supply  is  much  softer  than 
the  supply  derived  from  Los  Angeles  Eiver.     It  is  softer  than  the 
majority  of  the  water  supplies  of  the  larger  cities  in  California. 

(6)  That  the  conditions  as  respects  coolness  are  matters  dependent  upon 
the   climate   and   the   depths   to  which   the  water   mains   are   laid. 
With  the  control  of  growths  of  micro-organisms  in  the  reservoirs, 
and  particularly  in  Lower  Franklin  Eeservoir,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  water  will  continue  to  be  palatable  as  it  is  at 
present. 

The  water  resources  of  the  aqueduct  system  have  been  discussed  at 
some  length  in  the  preceding  pages.  All  of  the  studies  which  have  been 


BOARD  OF  PUBLIC  SERVICE  COMMISSIONERS  53 

made  demonstrate  that  the  volume  of  supply  for  which  the  system  has  been 
designed  can  be  developed  and  can  be  maintained  at  all  times  and  under  all 
conditions. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  discuss  the  structural  stability 
and  other  features  having  to  do  with  the  dependableness  of  the  works. 
Most  of  the  structures  have  already  been  tested  through  a  considerable 
period.  They  have  proved  their  ability  to  stand  and  to  perform  the  service 
for  which  they  were  intended.  Indeed,  it  can  be  stated  without  reservation 
that  this  magnificent  enterprise,  now  all  but  completed,  has  been  carried 
through  in  a  marvelously  enduring  fashion  with  an  economy  which  has  won 
the  enthusiastic  praise  of  the  whole  engineering  world. 

CONCLUSION. 
DECISION  OF  JUDGE  WOEKS. 

No  more  suitable  or  fitting  conclusion  to  this  discussion  could  be  offered 
than  the  decision  of  Judge  Lewis  R.  Works  before  whom,  in  Department 
Four  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Los  Angeles  County,  the  cases  of  Hart  and 
Frost  vs.  the  City  of  Los  Angeles  were  heard.  The  written  decision  was 
rendered  shortly  after  the  arguments  of  counsel  were  concluded.  The  text 
of  the  decision  is  as  follows: 

"This  litigation  was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  enjoining  the 
further  delivery  of  a  water  supply  from  Owens  Valley  to  the  people  of 
Los  Angeles.  It  proceeds  mainly  upon  the  claim  that  the  water  is 
polluted  and  infected,  is  likely  to  continue  so,  and  is  therefore  unfit 
for  human  consumption.  This  claim  has  been  urged  strenuously  through- 
out the  trial  and  the  defense  waged  against  it  has  been  equally  vigorous. 
Counsel  on  both  sides  have  been  vigilant,  aggressive  and  untiring 
•  throughout  the  controversy.  One  hundred  and  fifty  photographs  and 
maps  have  been  introduced  in  evidence  and  about  three  hundred  samples 
of  water,  taken  at  various  points  from  the  headwaters  of  Owens  Eiver 
to  kitchen  taps  in  Los  Angeles,  have  been  analyzed  for  the  information 
of  the  Court.  Men  and  women  of  a  high  degree  of  learning  in  hydraulics, 
in  bacteriology  and  in  analytical  chemistry  have  testified,  the  re- 
spective counsel  have  been  allowed  the  widest  possible  range  in  the 
introduction  of  the  evidence  and  the  subject  has  been  exhausted.  The 
hearing  has  consumed  forty  actual  trial  days. 

"Owens  River  and  its  tributary  creeks  flow  through  a  country 
given  to  cattle  raising  and  other  rural  pursuits,  and  it  is  not  denied 
by  the  defendants  that  these  streams  are  contaminated  to  the  extent 
that  is  necessarily  characteristic  of  all  waters  flowing  through  such  a 
country,  and  having  a  similar  population.  In  this  connection  it  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  the  watershed  of  the  Owens  River  is  peopled  by 
an  average  of  but  about  one  and  one-half  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
while  many  of  the  cities  of  the  world  take  their  water  supply  from 
surface  streams  the  drainage  area  of  which  is  populated  to  the  extent 
of  several  hundred  persons  to  the  same  area. 

"The  scientific  principles  governing  the  selection  and  operation  of 
a  water  supply  system  intended  to  furnish  a  domestic  supply  from 
surface  streams  require  a  treatment  of  the  water  in  order  to  rid  it  of 
the  contamination  which  is  inevitably  incident  to  such  a  source  of 
supply.  This  treatment  consists  in  either  the  use  of  chemicals,  the 
installation  of  filtration  plants,  or  in  the  storage  of  the  water  in  reser- 
voirs for  a  period  of  time  requisite  to  its  purification. 

"If  it  be  granted  that  the  waters  of  Owens  Valley  are  contaminated 
like  all  surface  waters,  the  density  of  population  of  its  drainage  area 
being  the  true  index  of  contamination,  and  if  it  be  granted  that,  for 


54  FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  EEPOET 

that  reason,  those  waters  would  not  be  proper  for  domestic  use  at  the 
intake  of  the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct,  in  the  valley,  does  it  follow  that 
the  water  has  not  been  purified  when  it  reaches  the  point  of  delivery  in 
Los  Angeles,  two  hundred  eighty-six  miles  from  the  intake?  In  other 
words,  is  the  water,  during  its  transmission  from  the  intake  to  the  City, 
subjected  to  either  of  the  methods  of  treatment  above  mentioned  as 
requisite  to  the  purification  of  a  surface  water  supply? 

"Ninety  miles  from  the  Aqueduct  intake  is  located  Haiwee  Reser- 
voir.  From  the  outlet  of  that  reservoir  to  Los  Angeles  is  one  hundred 
ninety  miles.  During  its  progress  over  that  distance,  the  water  supply 
is  halted,  even  if  briefly,  in  Fairmont,  Dry  Canyon  and  Franklin 
Reservoirs,  three  other  basins  having  some  value  for  storage  purposes. 

"A  large  portion  of  the  testimony  during  the  trial  has  been  directed 
to  the  question  of  the  efficiency  of  the  entire  system  mentioned,  and 
especially  of  Haiwee  Reservoir,  as  a  purifying  agency,  and  many 
experiments  have  been  conducted  in  the  waters  of  the  reservoir  in  order 
to  determine  the  problem.  It  is  not  necessary  now  to  state  the  nature 
of  these  experiments,  nor  to  analyze  the  theories  and  arguments  ad- 
vanced by  the  various  expert  witnesses  who  have  testified  concerning 
them.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  great  weight  of  the  evidence 
demonstrates  that  Haiwee  Reservoir  is  remarkably  efficient  as  a  great 
purifying  unit  in  the  Aqueduct  system.  This  immense  basin  is  over 
seven  miles  in  length,  with  that  distance  between  its  inlet  and  outlet, 
and  impounds,  for  a  long  period  of  time,  certainly  not  less  than  thirty 
days,  all  waters  which  enter  it.  The  reservoir  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  use  for  which  it  was  principally  designed.  One  of  the  leading 
expert  witnesses  in  the  case  characterizes  it  as  unique  among  the 
storage  reservoirs  of  the  world.  Being  in  a  region  in  which  there  is  a 
rainfall  of  not  to  exceed  five  inches  per  annum,  a  region  of  porous, 
sandy  soil,  and  entirely  uninhabited,  it  is  the  recipient  of  no  run-off 
from  its  own  watershed  and  it  is  therefore  free  from  the  contamination 
of  such  a  run-off.  The  only  influent  of  the  reservoir  is  the  Los  Angeles 
Aqueduct,  containing  waters  brought  from  the  Owens  River.  The 
intake  gates  on  the  river  may  be  closed  at  will  and  there  are  frequent 
waste  gates  along  the  course  of  the  aqueduct,  from  the  river  to  the 
reservoir,  through  which  the  waters  of  the  great  ditch  may  be  entirely 
cast  away.  These  instrumentalities  conduce  to  a  perfect  control  of 
the  Haiwee  influent  and  the  waters  may  be  diverted  and  wasted  in 
periods  of  flood  or  at  any  other  time  of  possible  undue  contamination 
from  whatever  cause. 

"This  peculiarly  advantageous  location  of  Haiwee  is  mentioned  in 
passing,  only,  as  the  period  of  storage  which  is  allowed  by  its  size  and 
shape  is  alone  sufficient  to  guarantee  to  the  people  of  Los  Angeles  a 
positive  immunity  from  dangers  residing  in  the  waters  before  they 
leave  Owens  Valley,  conceding  that  such  dangers  are  there  present, 
and  without  regard  to  the  use  of  the  waste  gates  mentioned,  which 
furnish  but  an  added  factor  of  safety  to  a  system  safe  enough  without 
them. 

' f  The  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct  is  so  planned  as  to  secure  to  the  resi- 
dents of  Los  Angeles  a  palatable,  wholesome  and  entirely  sanitary  water 
supply  and  Haiwee  Reservoir  is  the  prime  element  of  safety. 

"The  conclusions  reached  in  this  opinion  do  not  come  from  a  mere 
preponderance  of  the  evidence,  but  from  an  overwhelming  weight  of 
proof  which  leaves  possible  no  other  termination  of  the  litigation.  On 
the  whole,  the  record  in  this  trial  furnishes  a  splendid  vindication  of 
the  judgment  of  the  people  of  the  city  in  acquiring  and  developing  a 
water  supply  from  the  Owens  River  region. 

"The  application  of  the  plaintiffs  for  an  injunction  is  denied  and 
the  defendants  will  have  judgment  for  their  costs." 


Makers 
Stockton,  Calif. 

PAT.  IAN.  21,  1908 


M182278 


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